Neurobiological correlates of fatherhood during the postpartum period: A scoping review

During the postpartum period, the paternal brain suffers extensive and complex neurobiological
alterations, through the experience of father–infant interactions. Although the impact of such
experience in the mother has been increasingly studied over the past years, less is known
about the neurobiological correlates of fatherhood—that is, the alterations in the brain and
other physiological systems associated with the experience of fatherhood. With the present
study, we aimed to perform a scoping review of the available literature on the genetic,
neuroendocrine, and brain correlates of fatherhood and identify the main gaps in the current
knowledge. PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science electronic databases were searched for
eligible studies on paternal neuroplasticity during the postpartum period, over the past 15years.
Reference lists of relevant key studies and reviews were also hand-searched. The research
team independently screened the identi"ed studies based on the established inclusion criteria.
Extracted data were analyzed using tables and descriptive synthesis. Among the 29 studies
that met our inclusion criteria, the vast majority pertained to neuroendocrine correlates of
fatherhood (n=19), followed by brain activity or connectivity (n=7), association studies of
candidate genes (n=2), and brain structure correlates (n=1). Collectively, studies published
during the past 15years suggest the existence of signi"cant endocrine (testosterone, oxytocin,
prolactin, and cortisol levels) and neurofunctional alterations (changed activity in several brain
networks related to empathy and approach motivation, emotional processing and mentalizing,
emotion regulation, dorsal attention, and default mode networks) as a result of fatherhood,
as well as preliminary evidence of genetic variability accounting for individual differences during
the postpartum period in fathers. No studies were so far published evaluating epigenetic
mechanisms associated with the paternal brain, something that was also the focus of the
During the postpartum period, the paternal brain suffers extensive and complex neurobiological
alterations, through the experience of father–infant interactions. Although the impact of such
experience in the mother has been increasingly studied over the past years, less is known
about the neurobiological correlates of fatherhood—that is, the alterations in the brain and
other physiological systems associated with the experience of fatherhood. With the present
study, we aimed to perform a scoping review of the available literature on the genetic,
neuroendocrine, and brain correlates of fatherhood and identify the main gaps in the current
knowledge. PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science electronic databases were searched for
eligible studies on paternal neuroplasticity during the postpartum period, over the past 15years.
Reference lists of relevant key studies and reviews were also hand-searched. The research
team independently screened the identi"ed studies based on the established inclusion criteria.
Extracted data were analyzed using tables and descriptive synthesis. Among the 29 studies
that met our inclusion criteria, the vast majority pertained to neuroendocrine correlates of
fatherhood (n=19), followed by brain activity or connectivity (n=7), association studies of
candidate genes (n=2), and brain structure correlates (n=1). Collectively, studies published
during the past 15years suggest the existence of signi"cant endocrine (testosterone, oxytocin,
prolactin, and cortisol levels) and neurofunctional alterations (changed activity in several brain
networks related to empathy and approach motivation, emotional processing and mentalizing,
emotion regulation, dorsal attention, and default mode networks) as a result of fatherhood,
as well as preliminary evidence of genetic variability accounting for individual differences during
the postpartum period in fathers. No studies were so far published evaluating epigenetic
mechanisms associated with the paternal brain, something that was also the focus of the
current review. We highlight the need for further research that examines neuroplasticity during
the experience of fatherhood and that considers both the interplay between hormones and
simultaneous assessment of the different biomarkers (e.g., associations between hormones
and neural activity); data collection protocols and assessment times should also be re"ned.
AM was supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) and EU through the European Social Fund and the Human Potential Operational Program -IF/00750/2015. JA was supported by the Psychology Research Centre (UI1662), University of Minho, through an individual Research Fellowship (UMINHO/BIM-CNCG/2021/28), framed by the Multiannual Funding of R&D Units (UIDB/01662/2020), and supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)/Ministerio da Ciencia, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior (MCTES) through national funds (PIDDAC). RG, BP, and MS are supported by a Ph.D. Grant (SFRH/BD/5099/2020; 2020.10167.BD; 2021.07006.BD, respectively) and sponsored by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology. AG-A is supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology [Individual Call to Scientific Employment Stimulus -3rd Edition 2019 -2020.02059.CEECIND]. AM, AS, and IS are also supported by the Psychology Research Centre (PSI/01662), School of Psychology, University of Minho, through the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology by the Portuguese State Budget (Ref.: UIDB/PSI/01662/2020). The Center for Research in Neuropsychology and Cognitive and Behavioral Intervention (CINEICC) of the Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences of the University of Coimbra is supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology and the Portuguese Ministry of Education and Science through national funds and co-financed by FEDER through COMPETE2020 under the PT2020 Partnership Agreement [UID/PSI/01662/2013].